1.1 Various Approaches to Force Transduction

1.2 Newton – Measurement Unit of Force

1.3 Mechanical Measurements of Forces & Tribology

1.4 Force Transducers Other than Electrical

1.5 Terminology: Sensors or Transducers ?

1.6 Force Measurement Systems

2.1 Energetical Aspects in Force Transduction

2.2 Examples of Force Measurement in Thermal Processes

2.3 Typical Requirements for Force Transducers

2.4 Force Transducers (FTs) Classifications

2.4.1 First Attempts of Force Transducers Systematization

2.4.2 German FT Classifications

2.4.3 Dutch FT Classifications

2.4.4 English FT Classifications

2.5 Nonconventional Types of Force Transducers

2.5.1 Electrodynamic Force Transducers

2.5.2 Galvanomagnetic Force Transducers (Based on Hall Effect)

2.5.3 Acoustic Force Transducers (SAWs)

2.6 An Enlarged Classification of Force Transducers

3.1 Resistive Force Transducers Types

3.2 Potentiometers

3.3 Pretensioned Wires

3.4 Strain Gauges

3.5 Piezoresistive Sensors

3.5.1 Silicon Devices

3.5.2 Carbon Film Coatings and Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

3.6 Force Sensing Resistors (FSRs)

3.7 Force Sensing Resistive Networks

4.1 LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

4.2 Variable Reluctance Transducers

4.3 Mutual Inductance Variation Force Transducers

4.4 Inductive Eddy Current Transducer

4.5 Biparametric Inductive Force Transducers

4.5.1 Biparametric LR

4.5.2 Biparametric LC

5.1 Capacitive Force Transducers Classification

5.2 Capacitive Force Transducers (CFTs) with Plates

5.2.1 CFT with Variable Thickness of the Dielectric Pad

5.2.2 CFT with Variable Distance between Plates

5.2.3 CFT with Plates Arranged under a Certain Angle

5.3 Multiple Plates Capacitive Force Transducers

5.4 Interdigitated and Matrix of Capacitive Sensors

5.4.1 CFT with Interdigitated Electrodes

5.4.2 CFT Using a Matrix of Capacitive Sensing Elements

5.5 Cylindrical Capacitive Force Transducers

5.6 Applications Based on Electrostatic Forces

5.6.1 Electrostatic Force Balances

5.6.2 Other Applications of Electrostatic Forces for the Measurement

of Mechanical Quantities

5.7 Electronic Circuits for Capacitive Transducers

6.1 Piezoelectric Materials

6.1.1 Quartz Crystals

6.1.2 Sensors with Organic Polymers

6.1.3 Solid State Devices

6.2 Unidirectional Piezoelectric Force Transducers

6.3 Tridirectional Piezoelectric Force Transducers

6.4 Piezoelectric Bimorph as Force Transducer

6.5 Electronic Circuits for Piezo Force Transducers

6.6 Complex Applications with Piezoelectric Devices

7.1 Classification

7.2 Magnetoresistive Force Transducers

7.3 Force Measurements in Magnetic Field

7.3.1 Resistive Force Transducers in Magnetic Field

7.3.2 Capacitive Force Transducers in Magnetic Field

7.3.3 Pressure Transducers Based on Magnetic Higher-Order Harmonic Fields

7.4 Electromagnetic Weighing by Force Compensation

7.5 Electromagnetic Devices for Small Forces

7.5.1 Electromagnetic Probes for Micro- and Nano-force Measurements

7.5.2 Magnetic Flux Quantum as a Sub-pico-newton Weight

7.5.3 Casimir Forces and Levitation Pressures Measurement

8.1 Electrodynamic Force Compensation Principle

8.2 Load Cells with Electrodynamic Feedback

8.3 Electrodynamic Force Compensation Balances

8.3.1 Hydrodynamic Gravimetric Balance

8.3.2 Electrodynamic Vacuum Microbalance

8.3.3 Electrodynamic Devices for Small Particles Experiments

8.4 Micromechanical Testers with Moving Coils

8.5 Multifunctional Transducers with Moving Coils

9.1 The Magnetostrictive Principle

9.2 Classification of Magnetoelastic FTs

9.3 Axial Magnetoelastic Force Transducers

9.3.1 Magnetostrictive Strips and Bars

9.3.2 Magnetostrictive Amorphous Wires

9.4 Frame-Shaped Magnetoelastic Force Transducers

9.5 Tubular Magnetoelastic Force Transducers

9.6 Circular Magnetoelastic Force Transducers

9.7 Block-Shaped Magnetoelastic Force Transducers

9.8 Magnetoelastic Shafts for Torque Transducers

9.9 Magnetoelastic FTs Electronic Circuitry

10.1 Hall Effect and Its Applications

10.2 Force Transducers Based on the Hall Effect

10.2.1 Hall Effect in Geotechnical Engineering

10.2.2 Medical Applications with Hall Sensors

10.3 Hall Devices for Other Mechanical Quantities

10.3.1 Displacement and Position Measurements Using Hall Sensors

10.3.2 Weighing Based on Hall Devices

10.3.3 Pressure and Flow Measurements by Means of Hall Sensors

10.3.4 Shock Measurements Using Hall Devices

10.3.5 Penetration Velocity and Rotational Speed Measured with Hall Sensors

10.4 Galvanomagnetic FTs in Complex Measurement Chains

10.4.1 Combined Measurands in Galvanomagnetic Force Transducers

10.4.2 Triaxial Galvanomagnetic Force Transducers

10.5 Other Electromagnetic Principles in Force Measurement

11.1 Vibrating Wire as Force Measurement Principle

11.2 VWFTs’ Structures and Characteristics

11.3 Electronic Circuits for VWTs

11.3.1 Vibrating-Wire Excitation Methods

11.3.2 Measuring Circuits for Vibrating-Wire Transducers

11.3.3 Digital Weighing Based on Vibrating-Wire Transducers

11.3.4 Virtual Musical Instruments Investigated by Means of VWFTs

11.4 Different Types of Vibrating-Wire Transducers

11.5 VWTs’ Applications for Other Physical Quantities

11.5.1 Viscometers and Densimeters

11.5.2 “Piezometers” (for Underground Water Pressure)

11.5.3 Tiltmeters / Inclinometers and Slope Indicators

11.6 VWTs’ Progress and Their Extended Utilization

12.1 Resonator Principle in Force Measurement

12.2 Materials for Resonators and Their Q-Factors

12.2.1 Quartz Resonators for Force Transducers

12.2.2 Silicon Resonators for Force Transducers

12.3 Various Shapes of Resonators

12.3.1 Resonating Beams for Force Transducers

12.3.2 Resonating Diaphragms / Membranes for Force / Pressure Transducers

12.3.3 Resonating Tubes for Force Transducers

12.4 Single Beam (Micro)Resonators

12.5 Double Beam (Micro)Resonators

12.5.1 Classical Double-Ended Tuning Forks (DETFs)

12.5.2 Modern Solutions for DETF Resonators

12.6 Metallic Triple Beam Resonators (MTBRs)

12.6.1 Force Transducers with MTBRs

12.6.2 Torque Transducers with MTBRs

13.1 Interdigital Transducers (IDTs)

13.2 Acoustic Emission and Waveguides

13.2.1 Acoustic Emission Applications

13.2.2 Acoustic Waveguides Applications

13.3 Ultrasound Force Transducers

13.3.1 Industrial Applications of Ultrasound Force Transducers

13.3.2 Ultrasound Force Transducers for Food and Farmacology

13.3.3 Medical Applications of Ultrasound Force Transducers

13.4 Acoustic Radiation Force Transducers

13.4.1 Acoustic Radiation Force Transducers in Medicine

13.4.2 Acoustic Radiation Force Transducers in Metrology

13.5 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Transducers

13.5.1 SAW Force Transducers

13.5.2 SAW Torque Transducers

13.5.3 SAW Pressure Transducers

13.5.4 SAW Fluidic Transducers

13.6 SAW Electronic Circuits

14.1 The Gyroscopic Principle in Force Measurement

14.2 Conventional Gyroscopic Force Transducers

14.3 Types of Micro-Gyroscopic Force Transducers

14.3.1 Inertial Gyroscopes

14.3.2 Piezoelectric Gyroscopes

14.3.3 Resonator / Vibrating Gyroscopes

14.3.4 Acoustic (and SAW) Gyroscopes

14.3.5 Coriolis Force Transducers in Medical Applications

14.4 Optical Gyroscopes

14.4.1 Fiber Optic Gyroscopes (FOGs)

14.4.2 Laser Gyroscopes

14.4.3 MOEMS (Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical System) Gyroscope

14.5 A Topical Review of Gyroscopes

15.1 Force Balance Principle Applied to Transducers

15.2 Electromagnetic Force Compensation (EMFC)

15.3 Electrostatic Force Compensation

15.4 Optical Devices Based on Force Feedback